Pre-infection administration of asiatic acid retards parasitaemia induction in Plasmodium berghei murine malaria infected Sprague-Dawley rats

Anecdotal information ascribes anti-malarial activity to Centella asiatica (CA) [25, 26] but there are no reports of chemoprophylaxis or chemotherapeutic effects of AA on malaria. There is a close resemblance in malaria pathophysiology between P. berghei and P. falciparum, the virulent species of human malaria parasites, warranting the former to be used as a safer analogue in experimental malaria. Studies have indicated, also proven by earlier research, that P. berghei causes SM proceeding to cerebral malaria (CM) in younger animals [23, 27–30]. Here, demonstrated is the novel influence of pre-infection po administration of AA on malaria in young, six weeks old SD rats (90–120 g) displaying hyperparasitaemia, SM and SMA.

Both murine malaria parasite (P. berghei) and SD rat malaria animal models conformed to a high predictive validity at days 3 and 7 in the IC and 30CHQ controls but not in the AA-administered group. Infection induction by an ip inoculation of 10⁵ of pRBCs saline suspension invariably results in SM within 2 weeks, however this did not seem to happen in animals administered with AA (10 mg/kg) during the pre-infection period of 48 h. The pre-patent duration (the time it takes for parasites to be detected in peripheral blood from the day of inoculation) is usually 72 h. This period was, however, prolonged by a further 3 days to a period beyond day 6 when AA (10 mg/kg) was administered 48 h before the animals were infected. The prevention of malaria could only be ascribed to the influence of AA as animal groups treated with CHQ (30 mg/kg) showed a malaria progression pattern as predicted [22]. Furthermore, subdued patent percentage parasitaemia, which failed to reach stable state malaria in AA (10 mg/kg) (Table 2)-administered groups, shows a possible cumulative concentration or effect of AA which continued to interact with the parasite well after administration of AA had ceased. This phenomenon was supported by observations of the percentage parasitaemia-time curve in this study (Fig. 2) which clearly showed AA10 administration causing a diminutive infection-time course compared to that of the IC and the CHQ controls. Notably, the IC percentage parasitaemia-time area under the curve covered only a maximum of 12 days, yet it was several times higher than that of AA10. Although others factors may be at play, the most probable cause of this difference may be attributable to the influence of AA10 on parasitaemia development. The CHQ-positive control also showed a similar, albeit higher AUC_{0–21 days} than AA10, trend which effect may also be attributable to the influence of the drug on the percentage parasitaemia. The elongation of the bioavailability of AA in plasma, after oral administration, depends on a number of factors of which the amphiphilic nature of the triterpenoid is a major one [31, 32]. Indeed, AA percentage human intestinal absorption (% HIA) was predicted as 91.23 %, Caco-2 cell permeability as 20.97 nm sec^?1 and plasma protein distribution as 96.45 %, suggesting well absorptivity, middle permeability and strong binding, respectively [33], which could account for possible AA accumulation in plasma relative to the albumin concentration [34–36]. Indeed, AA bioavailability and accumulation in circulation and tissues has been reported to increase with the duration of AA intake and with possible local and systemic protective effects [37]. This may explain how the parasitaemia was suppressed even when high erythrocytic-phase parasite inoculum (0.6–0.7 mL pRBC suspension), several-fold higher than human infection dose (50–100 ?L), was used to establish malaria. An efficient chemoprophylaxis is expected to inhibit establishment of patent malaria. While this did not happen, the later clearance of parasitaemia may indicate that AA has suppressive or clinical prophylaxis and will require certain levels to be reached for efficacy to be achieved.

In the experiment by Yin et al. (2012) the recovery of intact AA from tissues and plasma after dietary intake which reached peak plasma concentrations quickly (0.5 h) after oral intake [37], the rapid metabolic rate of AA in rat liver microsomes and primary hepatocytes (t_1/2 = 9.493 min) and accompanying low AA bioavailability (16.25 % or 394.2 ng/mL) [38] further indicate that the phytochemical needs time to reach certain lethal levels against malaria. In the current study there was no indication of low bioavailability as the phytochemical managed to retard parasitaemia patency. Oral absorption of AA occurs throughout the small intestines with the highest absorption occurring in the jejunum [38]. Absorption is characterized by two peaks from a single dose inter-spaced by 8 hours, which could be attributable to the enterohepatic circulation [39] and avid binding by albumin [40].

Animals administered with AA (10 mg/kg AA) pre-infection besides suppressing parasitaemia, also preserved food and water intake as well as increased weight gain (Table 1). This may mean that po administration of AA is optimum at 10 mg/kg. Unlike some bitter tasting anti-malarials used for prophylaxis, AA is tasteless having most likely no effect on the brain-gut axis that senses the bitterness, inducing satiety, reduced food and water intake in treated animals [41–43]. Indeed, animals that received CHQ, which is bitter, posted reduced food and water intake as well as weight loss.

Infected animals that were not treated (IC) showed critically low food and water intake as well as negative weight gain. Prolonged reduced food intake results in increased breakdown of stored fat and proteins, production of keto acids with concurrent acidosis and increased oxidative stress (OS). These conditions weaken the animal, promoting parasitaemia, aspects which may have led to the spectacular percentage parasitaemia differences between the AA (10 mg/kg) and the IC. These same effects of hyperparasitaemia were also evident in the animals treated with 30CHQ showing lack of prophylaxis of the drug at this concentration. Furthermore, AA has been reported to have an anti-hyperglycaemic effect through attenuation of glycolytic enzymes and inhibition of glycogen phosphorylase [20]. Asiatic acid was administered in normoglycaemic animals. Consequently, AA inhibition of gluconeogenesis whilst increasing glucose oxidation (upregulation of glycolysis), resulted in energy deficits that could only be satisfied by exogenous sources. Animals administered with AA 10 mg/kg necessarily had to increase food and water intake, which resulted in an increase percentage weight gain, to avert hypoglycaemia. In other words, while the innate immune system combats the infection [44], continued food intake is paramount to alleviate parasitic effects [45] making AA’s ability to increase feeding crucial in malaria [46]. Micronutrient malnutrition has been linked to malaria anaemia pathogenesis [47] and the three (malaria, malnutrition, anaemia) are the common face of childhood disease in many parts of the developing world [48].

To corroborate the reduced food intake was the retardation in RBC mass reduction, as shown by the SMA in thin blood smears (Fig. 1) as well as Hb measurements (Fig. 5), in animals administered with AA 10 mg/kg in comparison to the IC on day 12. There is a contrast between the RBC morphology on day 7 when compared to day 21 for the AA 10 mg/kg administered animals that reflects the slight slump in Hb observed on the earlier time period. Compared to the NIC this change in Hb in AA 10 mg/kg shows that no chemoprophylaxis agent may be 100 % effective all the time [1]. However, the low Hb observed in the IC demonstrates SMA caused by npRBC destruction [49], dyserythropoesis and/or ineffective erythropoiesis [50] and the general cachexia of the inflammatory disease [51] in the absence of effective chemoprophylaxis (Fig. 1c). Driving the hypochromic morphology observed with both IC and CHQ-treated animals (Fig. 1c, d) is a synchronous release of parasite pyrogens such as tumour necrosis factor-? (TNF-?) and interleukin-1? (IL-1?) that are also associated with anaemia, various pathologies and death from malaria [52, 53]. While haemolysis results in reduced RBC mass, the more devastating effect is the release of merozoites which will infect more RBCs, inflammatory chemokines that upregulate leucocytosis, free Hb that rapidly inactivates nitric oxide with concomitant endothelium insults that follow which leads to vasoconstriction and damage to critical organs [54, 55]. Compared to the CHQ-treated and the IC groups, AA administration did avert anaemia showing also that npRBC haemolysis was inhibited and with it, deleterious inflammatory mediators were also suppressed. With malaria-induced anaemia being one of the major contributors to the 43 % anaemia prevalence in children between the age of six and 59 months [56], its inhibition by AA administration from developing in young rats, provides possible leads into preventive malarial disease management.

Elevated leucocytosis, a surrogate marker of inflammation, was observed in the IC and the CHQ-treated animals but not in the NIC or AA (10 mg/kg) administered animals (Fig. 4). In malaria, inflammation is initiated by the release of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) during or at the end of merogony or RBC death when the pRBCs rapture [51]. The parasite pleiotropic influence-exerting GPI induces high levels of cytokines (TNF-?, IL-1?, IL-6) release from macrophages, causing the pyrexia and cachexia of malaria when it substitutes for the host GPI-based signal transduction in regulating protein kinase C, calcium levels, cell adhesion and nitric oxide (NO) synthesis [57, 58]. Macrophages and polyclonal lymphocyte activation, which was observed as leucocytosis in the IC and CHQ treated animals (Fig. 4) but not in AA-administered animals, may be a reflection of the aberrant GPI hyperactivity and excitation of both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses [59] involving the nuclear factor-K? (NF-K?) [60] in the malaria syndrome. With all this in perspective, it will be safe to infer that the prophylaxis administration of AA (10 mg/kg) did inhibit WBC count increase resulting from reduction in parasite infectivity, merogony abatement and subsequent insufficient GPI release as compared to the IC and CHQ-treated animals.

The founding principles of malaria lie in the successful activation of the immune system, incitement of the inflammatory cascade, abrogation of the haematopoietic function, systemic and endothelial changes with end organ failure, invariably initiated and orchestrated by an obligate intracellular protozoa [61, 62]. Therefore, it stands to reason that chemoprophylaxis approaches of malaria may of necessity focus on the prevention of these abnormalities from developing. While it might be impossible to have 100 % chemoprevention in malaria, infringement on the development of post-infection pathophysiology is crucial in keeping in check overt malaria disease occurrence [63]. Administered before infection or at the onset of the infection, AA10 may be able to avert the development of SM and the accompanying pathophysiology.