INDIA Art and Culture

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Indian Art and Culture
E-book for CSAT and IAS Mains

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• Puppet forms
• Painting Styles
• Dance forms
Classical
Folk
Tribal
• Theater forms
• Music
• Indian Architecture
• Indian Literature
• Religions
INDEX

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• A form of theatre or performance involving manipulation
of puppets.
• The process of animating inanimate performing objects.
• Used both as entertainment – in performance – and
ceremonially in rituals and celebrations such as carnivals.
• Originating in India 4000 years ago, where the main
character in Sanskrit plays was known as ―Sutradhara‖, ―the
holder of strings‖.
• Stories mainly from puranic literature, local myths and
legends.
String Puppet
Shadow Puppet
Glove Puppet
Rod Puppet
Puppet Forms of India
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• Jointed body and limbs that allow movement.
• Made of wood, or wire, or cloth stuffed with
cotton, rags or saw dust and are usually small.
• Manipulated by operating the control as well as
by loosening or pulling the relevant string.
• Regional variations:
Andhra Pradesh (Koyya Bommalata),
Assam (Putala Nach),
Karnataka (Sutrada Gombeyata),
Maharashtra (Kalasutri Bahulya),
Rajasthan (Kathputli),
Orissa (Gopalila),
Tamil Nadu (Bommalatam) and
West Bengal (Tarer or Sutor Putul).
1. String Puppets
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Kathputli, Rajasthan
• Carved from a single piece of wood.
• Large dolls that are colorfully dressed.
• Costumes and headgears are designed in the medieval
Rajasthani style.
• Uses highly dramatized version of the regional music.
• Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips.
• Wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs.
• Manipulated with strings attached to puppeteers fingers.
1. String Puppets
Kundhei, Orissa
• Made of light wood.
• Have no legs but wear long flowing skirts.
• Have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile,
articulate and easy to manipulate.
• Music of Odissi dance.
• Puppeteers hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to
which strings are attached.
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Gombeyatta, Karnataka
• Styled and designed like the characters of
Yakshagana, have joints at the legs,
shoulders, elbows, hips and knees.
• Music is dramatic; blends folk and
classical elements.
• Manipulated by five to seven strings tied
to a prop.
Bommalattam, Tamil Nadu
• Techniques of both rod and string puppets.
• Made of wood
• Strings are tied to an iron ring which the
puppeteer wears like a crown on his head.
• Are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate
of all. (A puppet may be as big as 4.5 feet).
• Manipulation Jointed arms sometimes
manipulated by rods (because heavy).
1. String Puppets
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• Flat figures cut out of leather, treated to make it translucent.
• Pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it.
• The manipulation between the light and the screen make
silhouettes or colourful shadows, as the case may be, for the
viewers who sit in front of the screen.
• Prevalent in Orissa. Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
2. Shadow puppet
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Togalu Gombeyatta, Karnataka
• Small in size.
• Regional music used.
• The puppets differ in size according to their
social status, for instance, large size for kings and
religious characters and smaller size for common
people or servants.
2. Shadow puppet
Tholu Bommalata, Andhra Pradesh
• Large in size and have jointed waist,
shoulders, elbows and knees.
• The classical music of the region.
• Coloured on both sides. Hence, throw
coloured shadows on the screen.
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Ravanachhaya, Orissa
• Small in size and are in one
piece with no joints.
• Made of deer skin and are
conceived in bold dramatic
poses.
• Not coloured, hence throw
opaque shadows on the screen.
• Apart from human and animal
characters, many props such as
trees, mountains, chariots, etc.
are also used.
2. Shadow puppet
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• The head is made of either papier mache,
cloth or wood, with two hands emerging
from just below the neck.
• The rest of the figure consists of a long
flowing skirt.
• The movements are controlled by the
human hand the first finger inserted in the
head and the middle finger and the thumb
are the two arms of the puppet.
• Popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West
Bengal and Kerala.
• Dialogues play an important role here.
3. Glove puppet
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Pavakoothu, Kerala
• Presented usually in a play form. Their
occurrence is almost confined to a few local
villages.
• Uses the narrative format prevalent in Kathakali.
• The puppets, found in Palghat district, are more
than four centuries old. They are carved
delicately on woods, up to two feet high and
beautified with colour paints, gilded tin,
transparent corals and peacock feathers.
• The puppeteer manipulates puppets sitting on an
elevated platform and use instrumental music,
such as, Chenda drums, conch shell, etc.
• Puppeteers perform together for an hour or two
in the evening in front of a brass oil-lamp.
• The episodes used are from Mahabharata.
3. Glove puppet
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Bener Putul, West bengal
• Means dolls of commercial people.
• Belong to the scheduled caste of the old palanquin-
bearers (Kahar). They are normally from among
land-less labour.
• The puppets are one and a half foot high, with
terracotta heads and wooden arms.
• The puppeteers sing songs during the show and
play Domru (small drums) to attract crowd.
• The music is based on either common folk tunes or
even popular Hindi or Bengali songs, full of robust
humour and sarcasm.
• The puppets have anklets fixed on arms, which are
used to keep rhythm by clapping.
• There are pairs of male and female puppets used by
the puppeteers with two hands.
• The themes are based on social events like linguistic
differences, escapade of lover- couples, or even
family planning.
• The puppeteer starts early in life and roams from
fair to fair, charging money for each song.
3. Glove puppet
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Sakhi Kundhei, Orissa
• The puppeteers are poor agricultural labour, running
small shops for livelihood.
• They perform Sakhi Natch showing the dalliance of
Krishna with Radha and the milkmaids.
• The puppeteers, belonging to a subcaste of Rajput,
claim to have migrated from Vrindaban.
• The puppet for Radha is with anklets round her
waist, called Chandra Badani (moon-faced) and the
music draws heavily on folk melodies accompanied
by Dhol (barrel-shaped drum).
• The puppets, gaudily dressed, have definite
expressions to depict emotions. The puppeteer
operates with right hand and plays the dhol with left
hand, while singing the lyrics.
• One puppeteer, with another playing the drum, often
manipulates the puppets.
• Treats Radha and Krishna as common village boy
and girl.
• The songs are from medieval poetry, using folk
melodies popular in the village.
3. Glove puppet
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Gulabu & Sitabu, Uttar Pradesh
• The puppeteers, sitting in an open
space, use resplendent dolls and mount
shows around the theme of two women
: Gulabo and Sitabo.
• The narrative, recited in a singsong
voice, is about the quarrel
between Sitabo, the helpless wife and
Gulabo, the beautiful mistress of the
same man, around petty social
happenings.
• The songs are interspersed with bawdy
jokes and caustic humour, often
reflecting the local incidents. The
puppets are made of papier-mache with
tinsel jewellery.
3. Glove puppet
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• Extension of glove-puppets, but often much larger and supported and
manipulated by rods from below.
• Found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa.
4. Rod puppet
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Putul Nautch, West Bengal
• Costumed like the actors of Jatra, a traditional
theatre.
• Carved from wood and follow the various artistic
styles of a particular region.
• Used to be of human size, but existing puppets
vary from 3 to 4 feet in height.
• Music of Jatra theatre (drum, harmonium and
cymbals).
• Puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the stylized
prose dialogues along with a group of musicians.
• Manipulated by a bamboo-made hub tied firmly to
the waist of the puppeteer on which the rod
holding the puppet is placed.
• Puppeteers move and dance imparting movements
to puppets.
4. Rod puppet
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Rod puppets, Orissa
• Much smaller in size, sbout twelve to eighteen inches.
• Hands are tied to strings instead of rods. (because they are small).
• The music blends folk tunes with classical Odissi tunes.
• Most of the dialogues are sung.
• The Orissa rod-puppeteers squat on the ground behind a screen
and manipulate.
4. Rod puppet
Yampuri, Bihar
• In one piece and have no joints.
• Describes Yampuri (the house of Death).
• The show begins with appearance of the death-god Yama and his
messenger, followed by their record-keeper Chitragupta. One by
one, the people (supposedly after death) are marched in front of
Yama to receive their doles of punishment.
• The narrative is meant primarily to put the fear of heaven and hell
in people for their current deeds.
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• Paintings are basically two types:
Murals: large scale paintings generally
attached to the floor of palaces and caves.
Miniatures: small scale which are done on
mainly cloth or paper.
• Can be categorized into seven special group:
Rajasthani painting
Madhubani painting
Tanjore painting
Mughal painting
Bengal style of art
Patta chitra
Warli art
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Painting styles in India

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• Also known as Mithila painting.
• Originated in Madhubani village in Bihar.
• According to mythology, this tradition commenced
when Janakraj, father of rani sita asked his painters to
paint the moments of marriage ceremony of Sita with
Lord Rama.
• Traditionally done by Madhubani‘s women on mud
walls, later started on cloth, canvas and handmade
papers.
• Also depict other Hindu devotional stories.
• Natural objects like moon, sun, tulsi etc is also found as
theme.
• No empty space is left, gaps are filled by different
geometrical motifs, floral, animals, and bird pictures.
• Are of three kinds : Brahmin style, Tatoo style and
Kshatriya style.
• Done with twigs, brushes, fingers, matchsticks, and nib
pens using natural dyes and colors.
• Eye-catching geometrical patters.
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Madhubani

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• Originated form Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu around 16th
century.
• Widely popular as home décor item.
• A unique art-form where precious stones and gold foils were
used.
• Initially used to depict Hindu Gods and Goddesses in
grandeur.
• Figures are large and the faces are round and divine. Lace
or thread is also used to decorate the jewellery.
• A mixture called "muk" is prepared using chalk powder and
African gum in a ratio of 2:1 and applied in places around
the stones and other areas to give an embossed look.
• Most of the paintings would depict the Child Krishna and
his various pranks, paintings of other deities were also
created.
• Changing with time - for example, the figures are no longer
round.
• Presiding deities of various famous temples are also being
depicted in the paintings.
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TANJORE

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• Developed and flourished during the 18th century in the royal courts of Rajasthan.
• The most important themes are from the life of Lord Krishna, the Great epics of
Ramayana and the Mahabharata, landscapes and human beings.
• Used on the walls of palaces, interior chambers of the forts, havelis and the like.
Schools of Rajput Painting:
• The Mewar school that contains the Chavand,
Nathdwara, Devgarh, Udaipur and Sawar styles of
painting.
• The Marwar school comprising the Kishangarh,
Bikaner, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali and Ghanerao
styles.
• The Hadoti school with the Kota, Bundi and
Jhalawar styles.
• The Dhundar school of Amber, Jaipur,
Shekhawati and Uniara styles of painting.
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RAJASTHANI

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• Exclusive combination of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles.
• Evolved as well as developed during the rule of Mughal Emperors
in India, between 16th to 19th century.
• Themes like battles, court scenes, receptions, legendary stories,
hunting scenes, wildlife, portraits, etc. are used.
• Developed when Humayun returned to India from exile, and
brought great Persian artists; Abd-us-samad and Mir-Sayyid Ali.
• Most famous example of the Mughal style of art is the Tutinama
Painting; `Tales of a Parrot`, which is presently in the Cleveland
Museum of Art.
• Under Akbar it experienced growth on a large-scale. Since Akbar
was interested in tales, the paintings were based on Ramayana,
Mahabharata and Persian epics.
• Under Jahangir it saw more and more refinement in brushwork,
along with the use of much lighter and subdued colors. The main
themes of the Mughal paintings revolved around the events from
Jahangir's own life, along with portraits, birds, flowers, animals,
etc.
• One of the most popular examples of Mughal paintings of this
time include the pictorial illustrations of the Jehangir-nama, the
biography of Emperor Jahangir.
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MUGHAL

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• Flourished during the British Raj in the early 20th century.
• Was associated with Indian nationalism, but also promoted by many
British arts administrators.
• Started in reaction reacting against the academic art styles previously
promoted in India, by Indian artists such as Raja Ravi Varma and in
British art schools.
• Due to influence of Indian spiritual ideas in the West, the British art
teacher Ernest Binfield Havell encouraged students to imitate
Mughal miniatures.
• This led to a strike by students and complaints from the local press,
including from nationalists who considered it to be a retrogressive
move.
• Havell was supported by the artist Abanindranath Tagore.
• Tagore's best-known painting, Bharat Mata (Mother India), depicted
a young woman, portrayed with four arms in the manner of Hindu
deities, holding objects symbolic of India's national aspirations.
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BENGAL STYLE

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• Warli is the name of a tribe, which
resides in Thane district of
Maharashtra on the northern outskirts
of Mumbai and extends up to the
Gujarat border.
• This art was eventually discovered in
the early seventies, and became
popular for its unique simplicity and
fervor for life.
• Helical shapes of men and women
and concentric circular designs in
Warli Paintings are symbols of the
circle of life.
• The harmony and balance portrayed
is thought to mean the harmony and
balance of the universe of discourse.
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WARLI ART

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• Done by using kalam (pen).
• Has two subtypes:
 Mausalipatnam style paintings focus on the Islamic
aesthetics and the ripe fruits is used to color the
paintings.
 Srikalahasti style draes paintings on the hindu
mythology and the color is drawn from raw fruits.
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KALAMKARI
• Traditional painting of Orissa, India.
• Based on Hindu Mythology and inspired by Jagannath
and Vaishnava cult.
• Natural colours are used in fully old traditional way by
Chitrakaras that is Oriya Painter
• Is painted on canvas (Patta). Carefully done
craftsmanship, rich colors, unique designs & creative
motifs, & simple themes, which are chiefly mythological
in origin on canvas.
• Paintings on the cave walls of Khandagiri and Udayagiri,
Konark temple, and many other temples in Orissa.
PATTACHITRA

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• Developed and flourished during 17th-19th centuries stretching from Jammu to
Almora and Garhwal, in the sub-Himalayan India, through Himachal Pradesh,
and each creating stark variations within the genre, ranging from bold intense
Basohli Painting, originating from Basohli in Jammu and Kashmir, to the
delicate and lyrical Kangra paintings, which became synonymous to the style
before other schools of paintings developed, which reached its pinnacle with
paintings of Radha and Krishna, inspired by Jayadev's Gita Govinda.
• Gave birth to a new idiom in Indian painting, and grew out of the Mughal
painting.
• Though this was patronized mostly by the Rajput kings who ruled many parts of
the region.
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PAHARI

Classical Dance - Folk Dance - Tribal Dance
Dance forms in India
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• Dance is a form of art, where the
body is used as a medium of
communication.
• The dance heritage of India is at
least 5000 years old.
• The wall paintings of Ajanta and
Ellora, the sculptures of Khajuraho
stand ample evidence for
popularity of Indian dances from
ancient times.
• Nataraja, the dancing Lord Shiva,
is the supreme manifestation of
Indian dance.
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Dance forms in India

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oBharatnatyam - Tamil Nadu
oKathak - Uttar Pradesh
oKathakali – Kerala
oKuchipudi- Andhra Pradesh
oManipuri – Manipur
oMohiniattam – Kerala
oOdissi – Orissa
oSattriya - Assam
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Classical Dance in India

Bharatanatyam
• Bhava (expression), Raga (music), Tala
(rhythm) and Natya (classical theater).
• It originates in South India.
• It consists of multiple items:
Nritta– pure dance movements
Abhinaya– dramatic art of storytelling
Nritya– combination of nritta & abhinaya
• Performed on Carnatic music.
• Costume are made of silk saris with gold
embroidery and has a lot of pleats.
• Necklace, Bangles and head ornaments are
used as jewelry.
• Bells mounted on woven pads are worn on
the feet.
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• Name is derived from Katha (story) and
Katthaka (who tells stories).
• It originates from North India.
• There are three main gharanas or schools:
Lucknow,
 Jaipur
Benares
• Dance progresses from slow to fast pieces.
Has Footwork & spins and includes
abhinaya-expression.
• Performed on Hindusthani music provided
by Tabla, Sitar, Santoor.
• Costume includes
 Ghungroos or bells on the ankles
 Female- lehenga choli or chudidaar
kameez
 Male- bare chest and dhoti or kurta
churidar
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Kathak

• It originates from Kerala state.
• Attractive make-up of characters and elaborate costumes are
used.
• Performance is a combination of five elements:
Natyam (expression),
Nritham (dance),
Nrithyam (enactment),
Geetham (vocal) and
Vadyam (instruments)
• Carnatic music is used with Manipravalam as language of
songs.
• Elaborate makeup is used:
Green face color- noble characters (Pacha)
Green with red streaks- characters with evil streaks
Red face color- excessively evil characters
Women have yellow face color
• Costumes are elaborate and differ according to character.
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Kathakali

• It originates from Andhra Pradesh.
• It shares many common elements
with Bharatanatyam.
• In Tarangam (a unique kuchipudi
dance)- dancer dances on plate with
diyas in the hands and vessel of water
on the head.
• Carnatic music is used.
• Costumes are similar to
Bharatanatyam.
• Costume also include ‗Katcham‘ (long
fold) at the back of the costume.
• Female characters wear ornaments
and jewelry. 35
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Kuchipudi

• It originates from Manipur state.
• Few features in its performance are:
 Movements are subtle and aim at devotion
and grace
 Rounded movements without jerks and sharp
lines
 Dancers feet never strike the ground hard
• Music is provided by a singer, ‗Pung‘ (drum),
cymbals and flute.
• Costume includes:
 Female- dress called patloi and lehenga called
kumin. Transparent odni is worn on the head
and covers the face.
 Male- usually saffron dress depicting Lord
Krishna.
• Dancers do not wear ankle bells in this dance
form. 36
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Manipuri

• Its name is derived from:
Mohini- temptress and
Attam- dance
• It‘s a graceful dance performed only by
women.
• It has influences from Bharatanatyam
and Kathakali.
• Music includes Vocal (called chollu),
Veena, flute, Maddalam & Idakka.
• It is characterized by realistic makeup
and simple dressing.
• Costume includes white or cream sari
with gold border and is profusely
pleated.
• Mainly gold ornaments are used as
jewelry.
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Mohiniattam

• It originates from Orissa.
• Consists of three schools:
Mahari,
Nartaki
Gotipua
• Main feautres of performance are:
Tribhangi- independent movement of head, chest and
pelvis
Chauka- basic square stance
• Odissi music is used.
• Costume feautres Sari- beautiful cloth wrapped around
body in traditional style in bright shades of orange, purple,
red or green.
• Jewelry includes:
Tikka (forehead ornament)
Allaka (headpiece where tikka hangs)
Ear covers in intricate shapes with jumkis (bell shaped
earrings) hanging from them
Chains
Two sets of bangles (thin bracelets) worn on upper arm
& wrist.
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Odissi

• It originated in Assam state.
• Performances are based on
mythological stories and is performed
by both men and women.
• It is recognized as one of the classical
dance forms of India in 2000.
• Devotional songs called borgeets are
used.
• Instruments used are khols (drums),
taals (cymbals) and flute.
• Costume are made of pat (type of
silk).
• Ornaments are based on traditional
Assamese designs.
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Sattriya

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• Indian culture includes a treasure of a variety of folk
dances.
• The diversity in culture and tradition is reflected in the
variety of Indian folk dances.
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Folk Dance in India

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Padayani (Kerala)
• One of the most colourful and enchanting dances of Southern Kerala.
• Associated with the festival of certain temples.
• These temples are formed in the districts of Alleppey, Quilon, Pathanamthitta and
Kottayam districts.
• The main kolams (huge masks) presented in Padayani are Kali, Kalan , Yakshi (fairy),
Pakshi (bird), etc.
• The literal meaning of Padayani is military formations or rows of army.
• The performers consist of dancers, singers and instrumentalists.
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Folk Dance in India

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Kaikottikali, Kerala
• Also known as Thiruvathirakali.
• Dance performed by women, in order to attain everlasting marital bliss, on
Thiruvathira day in the Malayalam month of Dhanu (December- January).
• The sinuous movements executed by a group of dancers around a nilavilakku,
embody 'lasya' or the amorous charm and grace of the feminine.
• The dance follows a circular, pirouetting pattern accompanied by clapping of
the hands and singing.
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Folk Dance in India

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Karakattam, Tamil Nadu
• One of the most essential parts
of a ritual, dedicated to
Mariamma, the goddess of
health and rain.
• It is performed by men,
wherein they balance pots filled
with uncooked rice,
surrounded by a tall conical
bamboo frame covered with
flowers.
• Drums and long pipes form the
musical instruments
accompanying the dance.
• Karakattam is popular in
villages during temple festivals.
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Folk Dance in India

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Kummi, Tamil Nadu
• Kummi means to dance while clapping
hands to a rhythm, accompanied by songs
in popular tunes.
• Women form a circle and dance during the
Maariamman and Kaanum Pongal festivals
for ten consecutive days.
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Folk Dance in India
Yakshgana, Karnataka
• Yakshgana is a folk theatre form of Karnataka
and it is an ancient art.
• The original form of Yakshgana involves the
use of recitative modes of poetry, melodies of
music, rhythm and dance techniques, colourful
costumes and graceful make up.

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Chhau, West Bengal
• Originated from the Purulia distrct .
• Mostly performed in the open space
or ground field during the night.
• It is a mask dance performed only by
the male dancers.
• The masks are made up from the
clay and paper.
• It is mythological, as it is mainly
based on various episodes of the
epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
• As the singer complete the invocation
song, a host of drummers and
musicians start beating the Dhol and
the Dhamsa.
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Folk Dance in India

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Dalkhai, Orissa
• The 'Dalkhai' is a dance performed by women
of the tribes from the Sambalpur district of
Orissa.
• It is quite a virile dance rendered during the
time of festivals.
• The men generally play the musical instruments
and the drummers often join the dance.
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Folk Dance in India
Namagen, Himachal Pradesh
• The autumnal hue is celebrated in September
by a dance performance called Namagen.
• The most striking dance amongst these is the
Gaddis.
• The costumes are largely woollen and richly
studded ornaments of silver are worn by
women.

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Bhangra, Punjab
• One of the most popular dances of India.
• Performed during Baisakhi usually by the men
in Punjab.
• It includes tricks and acrobatic feats.
• The songs include recitation of meaningless
'bolis', words, such as hoay, hoay.
• The drummer usually in the centre of the circle,
is surrounded by men dressed in lungis and
turbans.
• The dance performed by the women folk of
Punjab is called the 'Gidha'.
• In the Gidha, at a time a woman or a pair of
women dance while the others clap in rhythm.
The dance is performed in the festival of Teeyan
to welcome the rains.
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Folk Dance in India

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Ghoomer Dance
• Famous and a community dance of women in Rajasthan.
• It is performed on various auspicious occasions like fairs & festivals.
• It is called as `Ghoomer`, from the `ghoomna` of Ghaghra i.e. the
flowing of Ghaghra, a long skirt of the Rajasthani women.
• Women from any age group, may it be the young or old can participate in
Ghoomer dance.
• While dancing, the dancers move in a circular direction with clockwise
and anti-clockwise steps.
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Folk Dance in India

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Bihu, Assam
• The Bihu dance is performed in the
Bihu festival, celebrated for the
arrival of spring in the Assamese
New Year.
• The dance is performed in an open
space during daytime.
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Folk Dance in India
Cheraw (Bamboo) Dance, Mizoram
• The most popular and colourful dance of the
Mizos.
• Long pair of horizontal bamboo staves are
tapped open and close in rhythmic beats by
people sitting face to face on the ground.
• Because bamboos are used for the dance,
people sometimes call it the BAMBOO
DANCE.

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Burra Katha Dance, Andhra Pradesh
• Burra' is a special instrument used by two performers who dance
encourage the main story teller by exclamation and questions.
• Demands oratory as well as dancing skills on the part of the performers.
• Three people to enact the story telling.
• Main artiste is dressed in a colourful attire with a garland round his neck
and a tambura slung across his shoulder, the other two artistes dressed
similarly question the narration to alert a sleepy audience.
• The two accompanying artistes have a drum and hand taal.
• The theme of the story could be anything that has happened or is
happening.
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Folk Dance in India

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Garba Dance, Gujrat
• This dance form has connection with
Shakti-Puja.
• It is played in a circular form
performed by ladies on the nine nights
of Navaratri festival, Sharad Purnima,
Vasant Panchami, Holi etc.
• The word Garba is derived from the
word `Garbha Deep` (a lamp inside a
perforated earthen pot).
• In this folk dance, the women place the
pot known as Garba with the lamp on
their heads and move in circular
direction, singing and clap at the same
time.
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Folk Dance in India

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Dandia-Ras, Gujrat
• Also known as the `stick` dance.
• This dance is also a feature of most
welcomed festival, Navratri.
• The Ras is simple and is generally
performed by a group of young
people who move in typical style in
measured steps around a circle,
accompanied by a singing chorus and
a host of musical instruments like the
dhol, cymbals, zanz and shehnai.
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Folk Dance in India

• Performed by tribal people/adivasi, who possess a culture, distinct from the
pan Indian population.
• Completely different from Indian folk dances.
• Each tribe possesses its own distinguishable dance traditions interwoven with
the life of the people who dance it.
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Tribal Dances in India

Kaadar Nritham
• Only women take part.
• Primitive dance of Kaadar tribes of the forest of Kochi area.
• The performers arrange themselves in a semicircle. They hold the tip of their
cloths in their hands to the level of the waist and wave it to various rhythms of the
dance.
• It is a very simple but elegant tribal dance in slow steps.
Elelakkaradi
• A highly heroic group – dance.
• Almost the whole community of men, women and children participate.
• Very common with the tribal called Irular of Attappadi in Palakkad district.
• The dance brings out the fight of the people against the wild bears which often
attack their tribal hamlets.
• Dancers move out in rhythmic steps, with vociferous shouts and war cries and
keep time to the beatings of the primitive drums.
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Kaanikkar Nritham
• Group dance of the kanikkar tribes from Tamil Nadu.
• Performed as a ritual offering.
• The steps of the dancers perfectly synchronize with the waving of the hands
and beating of drums.
Paravalli Kali
• Mixed dance of the aboriginals of dense forest of Travancore area.
• Both men and women participate.
• They dance holding arms together, or shoulder to shoulder, linked in a backlock
posture.
• The men and women change their positions which amazing speed.
• The entire group of dancer sings songs and move swift rhythm in a circle.
• The linked arms swing to the rhythm in a fascinating wavelike movement.
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Paniyar Kali
• Performed by tribal in hilly forests of Wayand district.
• Highly masculine and only men participate.
• Around eight or ten dancers stand in a circle with hands linked together.
• They have around with rhythmic flexions of the body and while moving stamp the ground in
perfect rhythm to the loud beat of the primitive percussion instruments called Karu, Para,
Udukku, etc.
• As the dance gathers momentum the circle is swiftly expanded and contracted and the
dancers utter peculiar cries which gradually run up to a high pitch.
Man Kali
• It is mainly of two kinds
 The Ramayana episode in which Sita is being enchanted by Maricha in the guise of a
golden deer is enacted in graceful movements.
 One man takes the role of a deer while another that of a hunter. The deer hopes about and
jumps around. The hunter follows in close steps and his movements and gestures suggest
drawing the bow, aiming it, hurling the spear, brandishing some wooden log, etc.
• The whole dance is performed to the rhythm of wild percussion instruments.
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THAVALA KALI
• Boys jump one above the other in succession, imitating the leaps of the frog.
EDAYA NRITHAM
• Dance of the tribal shepherds.
• Both men and women participate.
• One of the shepherds sing. This is repeated in chorus by all the rest.
• As the singing is going in, one of them imitate the special sounds of shepherds
driving their sheep.
• Someone of the group crying successively to imitate the wild animals that try to attack
the sheep and also the thief who tries to robe them while the other members of the
group very adeptly bring out the terror on the faces of the lamps and their mournful
walings.
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• At least 5000 years old tradition in India.
• According to legend the very first play was performed on
heaven when the gods, having defeated the demons, were
enacting their victory.
• Hindu theorists conceived of plays in two types of production:
Lokadharmi (realistic), which involved the reproduction of
human behavior on the stage and the natural presentation of
objects,
Natyadharmi (conventional), which is the presentation of a
play through the use of stylized gestures and symbolism and
was considered more artistic than realistic.
• Indian theatre can be divided into three distinctive kinds: the
Classical or the Sanskrit theatre, the Traditional or the Folk
theatre and the Modern theatre.
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Theatre forms in India

Bhand Pather, Kashmir
• Unique combination of dance, music and acting.
• Biting satire, wit and parody characterize the form.
• Music is provided with surnai, nagaara and dhol.
• The actors are mainly from the farming community and the
impact of their way of living, ideals and sensitivity in the
drama is discernible.
• Sometimes masks are also used in the performance
Nautanki, Uttar Pradesh
• Important centres are Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras.
• The meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola,
Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel.
• Initially only men acted in Nautanki but nowadays, women
have also started taking part in the performances.
• Among those remembered with reverence is Gulab Bai of
Kanpur.
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Swang, Haryana and Western UP
• Musical folk-drama evolved in 18th century.
• Has stories in verse sung in various mode (classical, semi-classsical, folk). However
gradually prose has been included in it too enacted as dialogues.
• The softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa alongwith the development of
character can be seen in this theatre form.
• Two important styles of Swang are from Rohtak and Haathras. In the style belonging to
Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in Haathras, it is Brajbhasha.
• Initially cast was all male but women have started participating.
• Swang means impersonation. The Nautanki of UP, Khyal of Rajasthan are in this
tradition
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Naqal, Punjab
• Continues the Swang tradition.
• Naqal translates as mimicry or imitation and the naqalchi is the mimic. Relies
heavily on improvisation by the naqalchi.
• Centuries-old village tradition, very popular at weddings.
• Solo performance of group of 2-3 dressed in rustic clothes.
• Perform a series of skits, in a small space, each lasting 10 mins or so. Made up of
quick repartee, gentle satire.
• Subject-matter is purely social, like hilarious situations from the everyday. This form
is purely secular.
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Bhavai, Gujrat
• Traditionally performed during Navratri before the
shrine of Amba Mata or before a lamp symbolizing the
deity.
• Important centres are Kutch and Kathiawar.
• Instruments used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla, flute,
pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera, etc.
• In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional and
romantic sentiments.
Rasleela, Uttar Pradesh
• Based exclusively on legends of Lord Krishna
• Believed that Nand Das wrote the initial plays based
on the life of Krishna.
• The dialogues in prose combined beautifully with
songs and scenes from Krishna's pranks.
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Jatra
• Born and nurtured in Bengal
• Performed at fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and
ceremonies
• Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya's influence. Later,
however, worldly love stories too, found a place in Jatra.
• The earlier form of Jatra has been musical. Dialogues were added at
later stage.
• The actors themselves describe the change of scene, the place of
action, etc
Nachya, Chhattisgarh, Vidarbha
• Influenced by Ganda musicians and entertainment form Gammat
• Select a situations from life of agricultural community and improvise.
No written text is followed.
• Treatment is humourous and satirical
• Play begins with invocation of Ganesh and Saraswati.
• In one form of nachya, the Jokkad Pari, the performers dance with
flaming torches.
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Maach, Madhya Pradesh
• The term Maach is used for the stage itself as also
for the play.
• Songs are given prominence in between the
dialogues.
• Dialogues are called bol and rhyme in narration is
termedvanag.
• Tunes of this theatre form are known as ranga.
Tamaasha, Maharashtra
• It has evolved from the folk forms such as
Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan.
• The female actress is the chief exponent of dance
movements in the play, (unlike other theatre-
forms). She is known as Murki.
• Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and
vivid gestures make it possible to portray all the
emotions through dance
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Bhaona, Assam
• Cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal
Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can
also be seen.
• Bhaona is a presentation of Ankia
Naat.
• The Sutradhaar, or narrator begins
the story, first in Sanskrit and then
in either Brajboli or Assamese.
• Ankiya naat are one-act plays
interspersed with Sanskrit verses.
They were composed for common
people in simple language. A close
link with Sanskrit theater can be
seen.
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Dashaavtar, Konkan & Goa
• The performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord
Vishnu-the god of preservation and creativity.
• The ten incarnations are Matsya (fish), Kurma
(tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lion-man), Vaman
(dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, Krishna (or Balram),
Buddha and Kalki.
• Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar
performers wear masks of wood and papier mach.
Krishnattam, Kerala
• Came into existence in the mid17th century A.D. in
Calicut.
• Krishnattam is dance-drama presenting the story of
Krishna in a cycle of eight plays performed for eight
consecutive days. The plays are Avataram,
Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha,
Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and
Swargarohana.
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Mudiyettu, Kerala
• Celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-December).
• Usually performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala, as an oblation to the
Goddess.
• It depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika.
• The seven characters in Mudiyettu-Shiva, Narada, Darika, Danavendra,
Bhadrakali, Kooli and Koimbidar (Nandikeshvara) are all heavily made-up.
• In 2010, Mudiyettu was included in the UNESCO Intagible Cultural Heritage
List.
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Theyyam, Kerala
• Word 'Theyyam' is derived from 'Daivam'
meaning God. Hence it is called God's
dance.
• Theyyam is performed by various castes to
appease and worship spirits of ancestors, folk-
heores, deities of diseases etc.
• Distinguishing features is the colourful
costume and awe-inspiring headgears (mudi)
nearly 5 to 6 feet high made of arecanut
splices, bamboos, leaf sheaths of arecanut and
wooden planks and dyed into different strong
colours using turmeric, wax and arac.
• Face is always painted in an orange base-
colour.
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Koodiyaattam / Kutiyattam, Kerala
• Based on Sanskrit theatre traditions.
• Characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar
(actor), Naambiyaar (instrumentalists) and
Naangyaar (those taking on women's roles).
The Sutradhar (narrator) and the Vidushak
(jesters) are the protagonists.
• Vidushak alone delivers the dialogues.
• Emphasis on hand gestures and eye
movements makes this dance and theatre
form unique.
• Koodiyaattam was included in the UNESCO
Intagible Cultural Heritage List as
a Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity.
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Yakshagaana, Karnataka
• Based on mythological stories and Puranas
• Most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata
i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah,
Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from
Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh,
Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati.
Burrakatha
• A storytelling technique used in villages of Andra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The troupe
consists of one main performer and two co-
performers.
• It is a narrative entertainment that consists of prayers,
solo drama, dance, songs, poems and jokes.
• The topic will be either a Hindu mythological story or
a contemporary social problem.
• Harikatha, also known as Katha Kalakshepa, is a
variant which narrates tales of Lord Krishna, other
Gods and saints.
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Therukoothu, Tamil Nadu
• Literally means "street play". It is mostly performed at
the time of annual temple festivals of Mariamman
(Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest.
• There is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of
Draupadi.
RAMMAN, Uttarakhand
• Combining theatre, music, historical reconstructions,
and traditional oral and written tales, the Ramman is
a multiform cultural event
• Celebrated every year in Baisakh month (april) in the
courtyard of the temple of Bhumiyal Devta situated
in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand.
• Mask dance performed exclusively by the Bhandaris
(Ksatriya caste).
• Included in the UNESCO Representative list of
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
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Pandavani
• Chattisgarh and in the neighboring tribal areas of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
• Musical narration of tales from the Mahabharata with one lead narrator-singer, enacting and
singing with an ektara.
• No use of stage props or settings, it mainly relies on mimicry and rousing theatrical
movements. Sometimes the singer-narrator breaks into an impromptu dance, at the
completion of an episode or to celebrate a victory with the story being retold.
• During a performance, as the story builds, the tambura becomes a prop, sometimes it
becomes to personify a gada, mace of Arjun, or at times his bow or a chariot, while others it
becomes the hair of queen Draupadi or Dushshasan thus helping the narrator-singer play all
the characters of story.
• Teejan Bai is most renowned singer to this style.
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Khyal, Rajasthan
• Derived from khel (play), khyal probably took shape as a musical
dance-drama in the early eighteenth century.
• Based on mythological, historical, or popular romantic tales,
emphasizing qualities of heroism, self-sacrifice, and nobility.
• Types of khyal are identified by the kind of stage used or the musical
variations selected. In the Turra Kilangi khyal is performed on an
elaborately decorated stage, while the Kuchamani khyal is simpler in
presentation but has specific music and dance steps.
• Highly improvisatory in nature, with loosely structured plots and witty
dialogue, khayal requires an intimate audience–actor relationship.
• Its primary attraction is its soulful singing, accompanied by
the nakkara and dholak (both percussion), sarangi (bowed
instrument), and sometimes shehnai (wind instrument).
• Prompters with a copy of the dramatic text are always on the stage.
This is a convention that Khyal shares with Maach of MP where they
are known as pustakji.
• [Note: Not to be confused with 'Khayal' - a type of hindustani
classsical vocal rendition].
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Bhagat, Uttar Pradesh
• Mainly in Agra and Mathura.
• Considered as a parent form of Nautanki and is 400 yrs old.
• Initially consisted of dramatized devotionaal singing by devotees of the Vaishnava
sect. Later tales of romance, valour and kings added.
• Religious rituals at the beginning and end provide a frame for the performance.
At the beginning an actor playing Ganesh dances on the stage, who is then
worshipped by the other actors.
• Language of the bhagat is a mix of Hindi, Urdu, Braj.
Veedhi Natakam, Andhra Pradesh
• Presented during the religious festivals in praise of 'Bhagavan'. Thus the
performances were called 'Bhagavathams'.
• Veedhi in Telugu means street; an open place. So Veedhi Natakam is any
dramatic performance presented in a street.
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GENERIC FEATURES of TRADITIONAL THEATRE-FORMS
• Songs and the art of singing have an important role to play.
• There is a classical element in these theatre forms too, which takes on regional, local and folk
coloring.
• There are certain conventions of presentations depending upon and changing according to the
form and size of the stage or the platform and other available situations.
• There is no such thing as episodes. There is always continuity in its theme, structure and
presentation.
• There is direct and intimate communication between the actors and the audience.
• Characters keep changing their place on the stage to be more impressive and to give the
situation a greater significance. This technique also reduces the chance of boredom through
repetition and stillness.
• Dialogue delivery is usually carried out in a high pitch. This helps the actors in reaching out to
a larger audience. The artists always add something or the other to the original dialogue on
their own. The changes brought through improvisations, make the spectators ecstatic and help
in building a rapport with the audience
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Music of India
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• Includes multiple varieties of folk, popular, pop, classical music
and R&B.
• India's classical music tradition, including Carnatic and Hindustani
music, has a history spanning millennia and developed over
several eras.
• It remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of
spiritual inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment.
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Music of India

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Carnatic (South Indian) Music
 Of more recent origin
 Codified in medieval texts written by musicologists,
the influential ones among whom studied in North
India and thereafter returned to South India to
fashion Carnatic music out of the prevalent
regional musical forms to be found in South India
 Composition based, mostly fixed
 A fairly quick tempo from the start, so lacks the
intensity, introspection, microtones and several
ornaments found in Hindustani music
 Notes are not held for long and are mostly quitted
by a characteristic oscillation using indeterminate
pitch
 Constant and fairly fast tempo throughout
 No convention of time or season
 Percussion accompanist does not enunciate
rhythmic cycle clearly, so a second percussionist
and/or a timekeeper showing and/or clapping out
beats (in which the audience joins) is necessary
 Contrary to advocated argument, has Muslim
influences
Hindustani (North Indian) Music
 Continuity back to Vedic times (6,000 BC)
 Codified in a large number of ancient and
medieval music treatises
 Developed independently of folk music, albeit
occasionally importing folk or regional elements,
metamorphosing them suitably
 Raga based, mostly improvised
 Capable of intense expression in very slow speeds
 Vast range of ornaments, particularly during slow
passages
 Subtle use of microtones in slow passages
 Steady, long-held notes, mostly approached and/or
quitted by little ornamental phrases
 Gradual building up of tempo from very slow to
very fast
 Convention of time and season
 Clear enunciation of rhythmic cycle by percussion
accompanist (in dominant present day forms like
Khayal, Sadra, Thumri, Bhajan etc.)
 True to Hindu traditions: so-called ―Persian
influences‖ fully integrated within its essential and
ancient grammatical format
Classical Music in India
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Music of India

80
Uttarakhandi folk music
• On subjects related to nature.
• Primarily related to the various festivals, religious traditions, folk stories and simple life
of the people of Uttarakhand.
• Musical instruments include the dhol, damoun, turri, ransingha, dholki, daur, thali,
bhankora and masakbhaja. Tabla and harmonium are also used, but to a lesser extent.
• The main languages are Kumaoni and Garhwali.
Lavani
• Lavani comes from the word Lavanya which means beauty.
• Originated in the arid region of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. It has in fact
become a necessary part of the Maharashtrian folk dance performances.
• Traditionally, the songs are sung by female artistes, but male artistes may occasionally
sing Lavanis.
• The dance format associated with Lavani is known as Tamasha.
• Lavani is a combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to
the enchanting beats of 'Dholak', a drum-like instrument.
• Women wears nine-yard saris. They sings in a quick tempo.
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Music of India

81
Rajasthani
• Rajasthan has a very diverse cultural collection of musician castes, including Langas, Sapera, Bhopa,
Jogi and Manganiyar (lit. the ones who ask/beg).
• Rajasthan Diary quotes it as a soulful, full-throated music with Harmonious diversity.
• The haunting melody of Rajasthan evokes from a variety of delightfully primitive looking
instruments.
• The stringed variety include the Sarangi, Rawanhattha, Kamayacha, Morsing and Ektara.
• Percussion instruments come in all shapes and sizes from the huge Nagaras and Dhols to the tiny
Damrus.
• The Daf and Chang are a big favourite of Holi (the festival of colours) revellers. Flutes and bagpipers
come in local flavours such as Shehnai, Poongi, Algoza, Tarpi, Been and Bankia.
Ganasangeet
• Eg: Apni Azadi Ko Hum Hargis Mita Sakte Nahin, ajadee hoyni tor, Kadam kadam badhaye jaa,
Vande Mataram etc.
• Generally sung in chorus carrying some social message.
• The songs are usually about Freedom, community strength, patriotism.
• Due to the British occupation in India, a lot of protest songs about anti-imperialism/pro-socialism
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Music of India

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• Third millennium BC.
• On indus river bank.
• Walled cities for security.
• Rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads
cutting at right angles.
• Burnt mud-bricks as building material.
• Evidence of big building which perhaps were
public buildings, administrative or business
centres, pillared halls and courtyards.
• No evidence of temples.
• Public buildings include granaries to store grains.
• ‗Great Bath‘ - public bathing place shows the
importance of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in
this culture. It is still functional and there is no
leakage or cracks in the construction.
• Most of the houses had private wells and
bathrooms.
• Dominant citadal - treated as evidence of some
kind of political authority ruling over the cities.
• Evidence also of fortifications with gateways
enclosing the walled cities which shows that there
may have been a fear of being attacked.
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Indian Architecture
Indus Valley Civilization

84
The Mauryan Period
• Ashoka, first Mauryan to "think in stone".
• Mostly indigenous in origin, some exotic forms show the
influence of Greek, Persian and Egyptian cultures.
• Beginning of the Buddhist School of architecture in India.
• Ashokan pillars were lofty free standing monolithic columns
erected on sacred sites. Originally there were about thirty pillars
but now only ten are in existence, of which only two with lion
capitals stand in situ in good condition at Kolhua and Laurya
Nandangarh respectively.
• Sarnath pillar - finest pieces of sculpture of the Ashokan
period.
• The Chinese traveller Fa-hien was so impressed by Ashoka‘s
palace near Patna that he stated that "it was made by spirits" and
that its carvings are so elegantly executed "which no human
hands of this world could accomplish".
• Its existence was pointed out during the excavations at
Kumrahar, near Patna, where its ashes have been found
preserved for several thousand years.
• Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who
visited the Mauryan court described Chandragupta Maurya‘s
palace as an excellent architectural achievement
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Indian Architecture

85
THE STUPAS
• SANCHI STUPAS:
 hemispherical in shape with a low base.
 symbolized the cosmic mountain.
 inscription by the ivory carvers of Vidisha on the southern
gateway throws light on the transference of building material
from perishable wood and ivory to the more durable stone.
• AMARAVATI STUPA:
 built in 2nd or 1st century BC was probably like the one at
Sanchi
 but in later centuries it was transformed from a Hinayana
shrine to a Mahayana shrine.
• GANDHARA STUPA:
 further development of stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut.
 the base, dome and the hemisphere dome are sculpted.
 stupas of Nagarjunakonda in Krishna valley were very large.
 Maha Chaitya of Nagarjunakonda has a base in the form
of Swastika, which is a sun symbol.
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Indian Architecture

87
The Gandhara School Of Art (50 B.C. TO 500 A.D.):
• From Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was an important
centre of Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century A.D.
• Imbibed all kinds of foreign influences like Persian, Greek,
Roman, Saka and Kushan.
• Origin can be traced to the Greek rulers of Bactria and
Northwest India.
• During the reign of Kanishka that the art received great
patronage.
• Also known as the Graeco- Buddhist School of Art since
Greek techniques of Art were applied to Buddhist subjects.
• Most important contribution- evolution of beautiful images of
the Buddha and Bodhisattavas, which were executed in black
stone and modelled on identical characters of Graeco-Roman
pantheon.
• ―Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek but the heart of an
Indian."
• Most characteristic trait - depiction of Lord Buddha in the
standing or seated positions.
• Seated Buddha is always shown cross-legged in the traditional
Indian way.
• Typical feature - rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and
complex symbolism.
• Tallest rock-cut statue of Lord Buddha - Bamiyan
(Afghanistan) - 3-4 century AD.
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Indian Architecture

88
The Mathura School Of Art( 50 B.C. - 500 A.D.):
• At the holy city of Mathura between 1-3 A.D.
• Established tradition of transforming Buddhist
symbols into human form.
• Buddha‘s first image can be traced to Kanishka‘s reign
(about 78 A.D.).
• Earliest sculptures of Buddha were made keeping the
yaksha prototype in mind.
• Strongly built - right hand raised in protection and left
hand on the waist.
• The figures do not have moustaches and beards as in
the Gandhara Art.
• Seated figures are in the padmasana posture.
• Not only produced beautiful images of the Buddha
but also of the Jain Tirthankaras and gods and
goddesses of the Hindu pantheon.
• Although of indigenous origin, but greatly influenced
by the Gandhara School of Art.
• Guptas adopted, further improvised & perfected
Mathura School of Art.
• Observed at - Sarnath, Sravasti and even as far as
Rajgir in Bihar.
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The Amravati school of art
(200 b.C. - 200 a.D.):
• On the banks of the Krishna River in
modern Andhra Pradesh.
• Largest Buddhist stupa of South
India.
• Construction began in 200 B.C. and
was completed in 200 A.D.
• Stupendous stupa could not withstand
the ravages of time
• Its ruins are preserved in the London
Museum.
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Indian Architecture
Mughal Architecture
• Mughal architecture is the architectural style developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and
18th centuries throughout the extent of their empire in the Indian subcontinent.
• It was an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, and Indian architecture The Mughal Emperors gave a new
direction and impetus to architecture. Examples of the style can be found in India, Pakistan,
Afghanistan and Bangladesh.
• The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his five-
year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few of which have
survived.
• His grandson Akbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his
accomplishments were a tomb for his father Humayun, the Agra Fort, and the fort-city of
Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar's son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir.
• Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed the
Jama Masjid, the Red Fort, the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, and the most famous Mughal
monument, the Taj Mahal, as well as many other fine examples of the style.
• While Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb commissioned some buildings such as the Badshahi Mosque in
Lahore, his reign corresponded with the decline of Mughal architecture and the Empire itself.
• Under Jahangir the Hindu features vanished from the style; his great mosque at Lahore is in the
Persian style, covered with enameled tiles. At Agra, the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, which was
completed in 1628, was built entirely of white marble and covered in pietra dura mosaic.
• Jahangir also built the Shalimar Gardens and Nishat Bagh, and their accompanying pavilions on
the shore of Dal Lake in Kashmir. He also built a monument to his pet deer, Hiran Minar in
Sheikhupura, Pakistan and due to his great love for his wife, after his death she went on to build
his mausoleum in Lahore.

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Indian Architecture
Mughal Architecture
Shah Jahan
• Rather than building huge monuments like his
predecessors, Shah Jahan built elegant
monuments.
• The force and originality of their building style
gave way under Shah Jahan to a delicate
elegance and refinement of detail, illustrated in
the palaces erected in his reign at Agra and
Delhi.
• The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Agra Fort
and The Jama Masjid at Delhi are imposing
buildings, and their position and architecture
have been carefully considered so as to produce
a pleasing effect and feeling of spacious
elegance and well-balanced proportion of parts.
• Shah Jahan also built the Tomb of Jahangir and
sections of the Lahore Fort that include the Moti
Masjid, Sheesh Mahal, and Naulakha pavilion
which are all enclosed in the fort.
• He also built a mosque named after himself in
Thatta called Shahjahan Mosque.
• Another mosque was built during his tenure in
Lahore called Wazir Khan Mosque, by Shaikh Ilm-
ud-din Ansari who was the court physician to the
emperor.
Taj Mahal
• The Taj Mahal, the "teardrop on the cheek of
eternity" (Rabindranath Tagore), was completed in
1648 by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his
wife Mumtaz Mahal.
• Its longest plane of symmetry runs through the entire
complex except for the sarcophagus of Shah
Jahan, which is placed off centre in the crypt room
below the main floor.
• This symmetry extended to the building of an entire
mirror mosque in red sandstone, to complement the
Mecca-facing mosque place to the west of the
main structure.
• The Taj Mahal (1630–1648) in Agra, India and the
Shalimar Garden (1641–1642) in Lahore, Pakistan,
are two sites which are on the world heritage list of
UNESCO.
• The Taj is considered to be one of the most beautiful
monuments of the world and was included in the
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Mughal Architecture
Aurangzeb and later Mughal architecture
• In Aurangzeb's reign (1658–1707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble with
stucco ornament.
• Srirangapatna and Lucknow have examples of later Indo-Muslim architecture.
• He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which was later named
after him (Alamgir).
• Aurangzeb also built the Badshahi Mosque which was constructed in 1674 under the supervision of
Fida'i Koka. This mosque is adjacent to the Lahore Fort and is the last in the series of congregational
mosques in red sandstone and is closely modeled on the one Shah Jahan built at Shahjahanabad.
• The red sandstone of the walls contrasts with the white marble of the domes and the subtle intarsia
decoration.
• Additional monuments from this period are associated with women from Aurangzeb's imperial family.
• The construction of the elegant Zinat al-Masjid in Daryaganij was overseen by Aurangzeb's second
daughter Zinat-al-Nisa.
• The tomb of Aurangzeb's sister Roshan-Ara, who died in 1671, and the garden surrounding it were
neglected for a long time and are now in an advanced state of decay.
• Bibi Ka Maqbara was a mausoleum built by Prince Azam Shah, son of Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late
17th century as a loving tribute to his mother, Dilras Bano Begam in Aurangabad, Maharashtra.
• The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673 A.D., is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort in present day Lahore. It
was constructed to face west towards the Badshahi Mosque in the days of the Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb.
• Another construction of Mughal era is the Lalbagh Fort (also known as "Fort Aurangabad"), a Mughal
palace fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part of Dhaka, Bangladesh, whose
construction started in 1678 during the reign of Aurangzeb.

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Mughal Architecture
Mughal gardens
Mughal gardens are a group of gardens built by the Mughals in the Islamic
style of architecture. This style was influenced by Persian gardens and
Timurid gardens. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the
walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and
canals inside the gardens. The famous gardens are the Char Bagh gardens
at Taj Mahal, Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, Delhi and Kashmir as well as
Pinjore Garden in Haryana.

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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
• India's Hindu temple architecture is developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of
whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste).
• A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbha graha or womb-chamber, in which the
idol or deity is housed, often called circumambulation, a congregation hall, and sometimes an
antechamber and porch. The garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikara.
• All the Hindu temples in India follows the architecture defined in Shilpa Shastras.
• However, there are artistic variations in terms of construction of shikara depending on regional
culture
VIMANA garbha-griha
SHIKHARA
MANDAPA
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History of Temple Architecture
• Representation of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the microcosm
(the inner space).
• The Ashtadhyayi of Panini, the great grammarian of the 5th century BCE
speaks of images that were used in Hindu temple worship. The ordinary
images were called pratikriti and the images for worship were called archa.
• Patanjali, the 2nd-century BCE author of the Mahabhashya commentary on
the Ashtadhyayi, tells us more about the images.
• Deity images for sale were called Shivaka etc., but an archa of Shiva was
just called Shiva. Patanjali mentions Shiva and Skanda deities.
• There is also mention of the worship of Vasudeva (Krishna).
• Some images could be moved and some were immoveable.
• Panini also says that an archa was not to be sold and that there were
people (priests) who obtained their livelihood by taking care of it.
• Panini and Patanjali mention temples which were called prasadas.
• The earlier Shatapatha Brahmana of the period of the Vedas, informs us of
an image in the shape of Purusha which was placed within the altar.
• The Vedic books describe the plan of the temple to be square. This plan is
divided into 64 or 81 smaller squares, where each of these represent a
specific divinity.
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Nagara architecture
• Nagara temples have two distinct features :
 In plan, the temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in
the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with a number of re-
entrant angles on each side.
 In elevation, a Sikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclines inwards in a convex
curve.
• The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the Sikhara
and, thus, there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation.
• Style is widely distributed over a greater part of India, exhibiting distinct
varieties and ramifications in lines of evolution and elaboration according to
each locality.
• An example of Nagara architecture is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.
(detailed image on next page).
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Dravidian architecture
• Four following parts, differing only according to the age in which they were executed:
 The principal part, the temple itself, is called the Vimana (or Vimanam). It is always square in
plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; it contains the cell where the
image of the god or his emblem is placed.
 The porches or Mandapas (or Mantapams), which always cover and precede the door leading to
the cell.
 Gate-pyramids, Gopurams, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that
surround the more notable temples.
 Pillared halls or Chaultris—properly Chawadis -- used for various purposes, and which are the
invariable accompaniments of these temples.
• Contains temple tanks or wells for water (used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests),
dwellings for all grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or
convenience.
Structure of a typical
Drvaidan viman
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Badami Chalukya architecture
• Originated during 450 CE in Aihole and perfected in Pattadakal and Badami.
• Between 500 and 757 CE, Badami Chalukyas established the foundations of cave
temple architecture, on the banks of the Malaprabha River. Those styles mainly
include Aihole, Pattadakal and Badami.
• Built out of sandstone cut into enormous blocks from the outcrops in the chains of
the Kaladgi hills.
• At Badami, Chalukyas carved some of the finest cave temples. Mahakuta, the large
trees under which the shrine nestles.
• In Aihole, known as the "Cradle of Indian architecture," there are over 150 temples
scattered around the village.
• Pattadakal is a (World Heritage Site), where one finds the Virupaksha temple; it is
the biggest temple, having carved scenes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Other temples at Pattadakal are Mallikarjuna, Kashivishwanatha, Galaganatha and
Papanath.
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Gadag Architecture style
• Also called Western Chalukya architecture.
• Flourished for 150 years (1050 to 1200 CE); in this period, about 50 temples were built.
• Some examples are the Saraswati temple in the Trikuteshwara temple complex at Gadag, the
Doddabasappa Temple at Dambal, the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, and the Amriteshwara
temple at Annigeri. which is marked by ornate pillars with intricate sculpture.
• This style originated during the period of the Kalyani Chalukyas (also known as Western Chalukya)
Someswara I.
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Kalinga architecture style
• The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Odisha and
Northern Andhra Pradesh are called Kalinga style of architecture.
• The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely Rekha
Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula.
• Deula means "temple" in the local language. The former two are
associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temple while the third is
mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples.
• The Rekha deula and Khakhara deula houses the sanctum
sanctorum while the Pidha Deula constitutes outer dancing and
offering halls.
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Māru-Gurjara temple architecture
• Originated somewhere in 6th century in and around areas of Rajasthan.
• Shows the deep understanding of structures and refined skills of Rajasthani craftmen of bygone
era.
• Has two prominent styles: Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara.
• Scholars believe that Māru-Gurjara temple architecture is entirely Western Indian architecture
and is quite different from the North Indian temple architecture.
• This further shows the cultural and ethnic separation of Rajasthanis from north Indian culture.
• There is a connecting link between Māru-Gurjara architecture and Hoysala temple architecture.
In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.
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AJANTA CAVES
• Located near village of Ajintha in
Aurangabad.
• Discovered by the British officers while
hunting a tiger in 1819 AD.
• 30 cave temples at Ajanta are set into the
rocky sides of a crescent shaped gorge in the
Inhyadri hills of the Sahyadri ranges.
• 5 caves are Chaitya-grihas, & rest are
Viharas(monasteries).
• Caves were constructed in two phases, first
group around 200 BC and second group
around 600 AD.
• Depicts a large number of incidents from
the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales).
CAVE ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
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ELLORA CAVES(5th -13th Cen AD)
• Located in Aurangabad city.
• 3 major religion of india- Hinduism, Buddhism & Jainism.
• Buddhist Caves:
Built around 5th-7th century AD
Cave 10 is famous and known as Carpenter‘s Cave or
Vishvakarma Cave with a 3.3m high seated Buddha at the far
end.
Cave 11 has the images of Durga and Ganesh also a Buddha
shrine, it is belived that it was converted in to hindu temple
after being deserted by buddhist.
• Hindu Caves:
6th and 8th century AD.
Cave 16 also known as Kailasa Temple which is a multi
storeyed temple carved out of a single rock, built by
Rashtrakuta emperor Krishna I.
• Jain Caves:
Belongs to Digambara faction.
Total 5 caves.
Most notable are cave 30 (Chotta Kailash), cave 32 (Indra
Sabha), and cave 33 (Jagannath Sabha).
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ELEPHANTA CAVES
• Network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island,
or Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves") in Mumbai Harbour.
• The island, located on an arm of the Arabian Sea, consists of two groups
of caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves, the second, a
smaller group of two Buddhist caves.
• The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, representing
the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.
• Dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries, although the identity of the
original builders is still a subject of debate.
• Hewn from solid basalt rock. All the caves were also originally painted in
the past, but now only traces remain.
• The island was called Gharapuri and was a Hindu place of worship
until Portuguese rule began in 1534.
• The Portuguese called the island Elephanta on seeing its huge gigantic
statue of an Elephant at the entrance. The Statue is now placed in the
garden outside the Bhau Daji Lad Museum at Byculla in Mumbai.
• This cave was renovated in the 1970s after years of neglect, and was
designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 to preserve the
artwork. It is currently maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India.
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BHIMBETAKA CAVES
• Located near Bhopal in the Raisen District -
Madhya Pradesh.
• First referred in the archeological records in
1888 AD as Buddhist site. Later discovered
by Dr Vishnu Wakankar in 1957-58.
• More than 700 shelters. Bhimbetka group
(243) & Lakha Juar group (178).
• Rock paintings can be traced back to the
Stone Age era, closely 30000 years old.
• Excavations revealed history of continuous
habitation from early stone age (about 10000
years) to the end of stone age (c. 10,000 to
2,000 years).
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Vedic Literature

Vedas
• The earliest known literature in India.
• The Vedas were written in Sanskrit.
• In the Vedic Period, the text transmission happed by oral tradition.
• In post Vedic period the text were captured in the written format.
• The word „Veda‟ literally means knowledge.
• In Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as eternal and divine revelations.
• They treat the whole world as one human family Vasudev Kutumbakam.
• There are four Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.
• Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
• The Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known an Traji.
• In later years the Atharava Veda was incorporated in this group.
RIG VEDA
SAMA VEDA
YAJUR VEDA
ATHARVA VEDA
TRAJI Four
Vedas
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Vedic Literature

Praise of GODS
Origin of Music-Sabda
Brahma Nad Brahma
Vedas of Worship
Various branches of
Science, Ayurved,
economics including
Vedic Math
RIG VEDA
YAJUR VEDA
SAM VEDA
ATHARVA VEDA
Vedas
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Vedic Literature

Rigveda
• Oldest of all Vedas.
• It is believed that these recitations are
the natural outpouring of Vedic rishis
experiencing a mentally transcendental
stage.
• Some of the well-known rishis are
Vasistha, Gautama, Gritasamada,
Vamadeva, Vishvamitra and Atri.
• Contains 1028 hymns or mantras.
• The hymns of each mandala are called
as suktas, intended for various sacrificial
rituals.
• Structured in 10 books, known as
Mandalas, compiled at different time
periods between 1700-1100 BC.
• Contains the Sanskrit hymns about the
origin of the world, praise of the gods,
prayers for life, prosperity in the form of
poetry.
• The Gayatri Mantra, the highly valued
universal prayer is a hymn of Mandala 3
of the Rigveda.
Yajurveda
• One of the most important Vedas, is
considered to be composed between
1000 and 600 BC
• Yajur means sacrifice or worship.
• Concerned mostly with rites and
mantras of different sacrifices. It gives
directions for the performance of the
yajnas.
• It has both poetic and prose renderings.
• Being a treatise on rituals, it is the most
popular of the four Vedas.
• Shukla (white) and Krishna (black) are
the two main versions of the Yajurveda.
• The Krishna Yajurveda has four branches
(Shakas)
1.Taittiriya Shaka
2.Maitrayani Shaka
3.Caraka-Katha Shaka
4.Kapisthala-Katha Shaka
• Shukla Yajurveda has two branches
1.Vajasaneyi Madhyandina
2.Vajasaneyi Kanva
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Vedic Literature

Samaveda
• Sama means melody or songs.
• It has 1549 stanzas and is taken almost entirely from Rigveda except few stanzas
• Sama Veda prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda.
• Also called as the book of Chants (Saman).
• This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this period.
Artharvaveda
• Also known as the Brahma Veda
• The Artharvaveda is text belong to the poets Atharvan and Angirasa.
• It has total 760 hymns and some hymns are in common with the Rigveda.
• It contains treatment for ninety-nine diseases.
• It has two branches, the Paippalada and the Saunaka.
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Vedic Literature

• Prasthatrayi refers to three holy books.
• They form the Scriptural Trinity of the Sanatan Dharma or the Hinduism.
• If ever a controversy arises on any philosophical issue in Hinduism, the interpretation of the
Prasthantrayi is final and binding.
• If there is a difference in the statements of the Prasthantryi and any other book of
Hinduism, the former is considered supreme.
• Generally the fundamental philosophy pronounced in the Prasthantrayi is referred to as
the Vedanta
The Upanishads
The Brahma-Sutra
The Bhagvad Gita
Vedanta
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Vedic Literature

Upanishads
• The Upanishads are a continuation of the Vedic
philosophy, and were written between 800 and 400
B.C. They elaborate on how the soul (Atman) can be
united with the ultimate truth (Brahman) through
contemplation and mediation, as well as the doctrine
of Karma-- the cumulative effects of a persons' actions
• The word Upanishad consists of three parts:
 Upa (near),
 Ni (down), and
 Shad (sit).
• 'sitting near a teacher and receiving the secret
teachings.'
• The Upanishads more clearly set forth the prime Vedic
doctrines like Self-realization, yoga and meditation,
karma and reincarnation, which were hidden or kept
veiled under the symbols of the older mystery religion.
• The Upanishads became prevalent some centuries
before the time of Krishna and Buddha
• Upanishad means Brahma-knowledge by which
ignorance is loosened or destroyed.
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Vedic Literature

The Brahma-Sutra
• Teachings of Vedanta are set forth in a systematic
and logical order.
• Also known as Vedanta Sutra, Uttara-mimamsa
Sutra, Shariraka Sutra and the Bhikshu Sutra.
• Consists of 555 aphorisms or sutras, in 4 chapters,
each chapter being divided into 4 sections each.
• The first chapter (Samanvaya: harmony) explains
that all the Vedantic texts talk of Brahman, the
ultimate reality, which is the goal of life.
• The second chapter (Avirodha: non-conflict)
discusses and refutes the possible objections against
Vedanta philosophy.
• The third chapter (Sadhana: the means) describes
the process by which ultimate emancipation can
be achieved.
• The fourth chapter (Phala: the fruit) talks of the state
that is achieved in final emancipation.
• Indian tradition identifies Badrayana, the author of
the Brahma Sutra, with Vyasa, the compiler of the
Vedas.
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Vedic Literature

Bhagavad Gita
• Part of the Sanskrit epic
Mahabhaarata (200 BC to 200 AD).
• 700 verses in 18 chapters.
• A conversation between Lord
Krishna and his close friend Arjuna in
the middle of the battle field just
before the start of the Kurushetra
battle.
• Arjuna loses his heart and refuses to
fight his eachers and relatives, and
Krishna revives him by his wise words
of wisdom.
• Presents a synthesis of the
Brahmanical concept of Dharma,
theistic bhakti, the yogic ideals of
liberation hrough jnana, and
Samkhya philosophy.
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Vedic Literature

• The Puranas are post-Vedic texts which typically contain a complete narrative of the
history of the Universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes
and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology and geography.
• There are 18 canonical Puranas, divided into three categories, each named after a
deity: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. There are also many other works termed Purana,
known as 'Upapuranas.'
• Some of the well known Puranas are Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Agni,
Matsya and Garuda.
• The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earliest Puranas were compiled in
the Gupta period.
• They are full of myths, stories, legends and sermons that were meant for the
education of the common people.
• These Puranas contain important geographical information/ histories and deal with
the mysteries of creation, re-creation and dynastic genealogies.
• This period also saw the compilation of various smritis or law books written in verse.
• The phase of writing commentaries on the smritis begins after the Gupta period.
• Amarasimha the Sanskrit Lexicographer, states that a Purana should describe five
topics; (1) Sarga (Creation) (2) Pratisarga (Secondary creation) (3) Vemsa
(Geneology) (4) Manvantara (Manu periods) and (5) Vamsanucarita (dynastic
history)
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Vedic Literature

Ramayana
• The Ramayana is one of the great Hindu
epics.
• It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and
forms an important part of the Hindu literature
(smṛti).
• It depicts the duties of relationships,
portraying ideal characters like the ideal
father, ideal servant, the ideal brother, the
ideal wife and the ideal king.
• The name Ramayana is
a tatpurusha compound
of Rāma and ayana ("going, advancing"),
translating to "Rama's Journey".
• Consists of 24,000 verses in seven books
(kāṇḍas) and 500 cantos (sargas).
• Tells the story of Rama (an avatar of the Hindu
Supreme-GodVishnu), whose wife Sita is
abducted by the king of Ravan. Thematically,
the Ramayana explores human values and
the concept of dharma.
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Vedic Literature

Mahabharata
• The Mahabharata is a more complex work which
covers almost every aspect of life and living.
• It is the longest existing epic consisting of 1,20,000
shlokas.
• Said to be the story of an ancient battle between
two branches of a family, the Bharatas.
• Said to be composed around 400 B.C.
• Also known as Jaya or victory, the Mahabharata is
said to have been composed by the great sage
Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas.
• Vyasa taught the Mahabharata to his son Suka.
• It is said Narada taught it to the gods or devas while
Suka taught it to the gandharvas, the rakshasas and
the yakshas.
• Vaisampayana, one of Vyasa‟s chief disciples,
narrated the story at a great sacrifice conducted by
Janamejaya, the descendent of the Pandavas and
it spread further.
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Vedic Literature

Mahabharata
• It is in the form of a dialogue between
King Dhritarashtra and Sanjaya his
advisor and chariot driver.
• Sanjaya narrates each incident of the
Kurukshetra War, fought in 18 days, as
and when it happened.
• Dhritarashtra sometimes asks questions
and laments the destruction caused by
the war, to his sons, friends and kinsmen.
He also feels guilty, because he was
partly responsible.
• Sanjaya begins with a description of the
earth, the other planets, and gives an
elaborate list of the kingdoms, tribes,
provinces, cities, towns, villages, rivers,
mountains, forests, etc. of
Bharatavarsha.
• He also explains the military formations
adopted on each day, the death of
each hero and the details of each
battle.
Itihasa
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Vedic Literature

• After the four Vedas, a number of works called the Brahmanas were developed.
• It gives detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and instructions and deal with the science of
sacrifice.
• Aranyakas are the latter portions of the Brahmanas.
• The final parts of the Aranyakas are philosophic books named Upanishads.
• Each of the four Vedas have their own Brahmana books.
• Provides detailed information of the social, political and religious life of the people.
• The Arayankas deal with soul, birth and death and life beyond it.
• These were studied and taught by men in Vanprastha i.e. Munis and the inhabitants living inside
the forests.
• All these works were in Sanskrit. Initially they were handed down orally and were put to writing
much later.
VEDA ARANYAKA BRAHMANA
RIG Aitereya, Kousitaki Aiterya, Kousitaki
YAJUR Taittiriya, Brhad
Aranyaka, Maitr Ayania
Taittiriya, Kanva Satapatha, Madhyandin
Satpatha
SAMA TalvakAra, PancavimSa, VamSa, Arseya,
SadvimSa, ChAndoghya, Mantra, Daivata,
Jaiminiya, Samavidhana, Samhitopanishad
ATHARVA Gopatha
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Brahmanas and Aranyakas

• Written by Panini ,a famous Sanskrit grammarian from
Pushkalavati, Gandhara of ancient Indian.
• He is mostly famous for his Sanskrit grammar Ashtadhyayi.
• He formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology, syntax and
semantics in the grammar.
• The Ashtadhyayi is the initial text of the grammatical branch of
the Vedanga.
• It is one of the most important auxiliary academic texts of Vedic
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Ashtadhyayi

• Writeen by Megasthenes, a Greek traveler,
historian, diplomat, geographer and author.
• He visited India at the time of Mauryan Empire in
304 BC.
• Considered as the first foreigner Ambassador to
India. He stayed in India for a long time.
• The hellenistic king Seleucus I sent him to India as
an ambassador to the court of King
Chandragupta Maurya of Mauryan Empire.
• His famous work Indica is the first Western well
known account of India.
• Provides detail account of the social, political
and economic life of India to the Greek world
which was the source to work by the later
historian like Diodorus, Strabo.
• He mentioned about the culture, history and
religion of India. In his work he also described a
caste system.
• He referred about Himalayas and the island of Sri
Lanka
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Indica

• Written by Saint Manu.
• It is believed that Manu was the ancient
teacher of sacred rites and laws.
• He was a religious practitioner and a
scholar in astrology.
• Also known as the Manu-Smriti or Manava-
Dharmasastra
• It is a famous Sanskrit text about code of
law and Dharmasastra textual of Hinduism.
• Talks about the principles, morals, duties
and schedules that a person should follow
in its life.
• Has total 12 Chapters and 2685 Shlokas
(verses).
• It formed the root of Hindu law.
• Considered as one of the oldest important
texts during the time of 200 BC and 200 AD.
• According to Hindu ritual, the Manu Smriti
records the words of Brahma.
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Manu Samhita

• Written by Kautilya/ Chanakya who was the Prime
Minister of Chandragupta Maurya.
• It describes the art of running a kingdom: how to
appoint ministers, officials, and judges; how to
collect and keep revenues; how to wage war; how
to manipulate and/or make treaties with
neighboring kings.
• Its pragmatic “the-ends-justify-the-means”
suggestions have often been compared to the
16th-century writings of the Italian political
philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli.
• The book explained in detail how a king in financial
need might “replenish” his treasury: by taking more
grain from farmers and more gold from traders or
(this with several variations) by proclaiming a tree,
a shrub, a house the site of a spectacular miracle
and then living on the donations given by believers.
• In addition to all this, the book also included lists of
magical potions and spells to be used against
enemies or in case of a revolt.
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Arthashastra

• Written between 400 BCE and 200 CE on
human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature by
Vātsyāyana.
• A portion of the work consists of practical
advice on sexual intercourse.
• It is largely in prose, with many inserted
anustubh poetry verses.
• "Kāma" which is one of the four goals of Hindu
life, means sensual or sexual pleasure, and
"sūtra" literally means a thread or line that holds
things together, and more metaphorically
refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or
a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a
manual.
• Contrary to popular perception, especially in
the western world, Kama sutra is not just an
exclusive sex manual; it presents itself as a
guide to a virtuous and gracious living that
discusses the nature of love, family life and
other aspects pertaining to pleasure oriented
faculties of human life.
• The Kama Sutra is the oldest and most notable
of a group of texts known generically as Kama
Shastra.
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Famous kamasutra scenes
on the wall of hindu temple
in Khajuraho,India
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Kamasutra

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Religions in India
Hinduism
• The Hindu religion, exactly like the country of its birth, is unique.
• Where Christians have the Bible and the Muslims their Koran, Hindus can
pick from a whole range: the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagwad
Gita, the Mahabharata or the Ramayana.
Major Hindus Deities
• Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati, Durga, Rama,
Hanuman, Krishna or Ganesha are some of the most popular deities.
• You may worship any of them or just concentrate on the Supreme Spirit
which is believed to be enshrined in every person.
• Some Hindus begin the day with a visit to the neighborhood temple;
others adhere to fasts and rituals. While some go on pilgrimages and
bathe in holy rivers; still others declare all rituals redundant.
• Hinduism thrives and revels in all its contradictions. Within its elastic
structure, it allows great flexibility and is much more tolerant than any
other religion of the world.

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Religions in India
Hinduism
Atman
Though casually described as the self, atman is actually the eternal within us. You could call it the
spirit or soul that is enshrined in every human being. When an individual attains moksha, his atman
is believed to merge with the divine or the universal consciousness.
Dharma
Derived from the Sanskrit root dhara (to bear, to support, to maintain), dharma literally means `that
which is established by law, duty or custom'. When used in the context of Hinduism, it implies an
order of values which links the individual to the social and the cosmic. Hindus believe that each
act bears certain consequences in individual, social, ethical and cosmic terms. A dharmic act,
therefore, is one that brings positive results.
Four Ashrams
The four ashrams or stages of life prescribed for a Hindu presume that a person will live to a good
100 years. The first 25 years are set aside for learning, the next for life as a householder, then comes
the quarter dedicated to self-control and abstinence and the last quarter involves renunciation or
withdrawal from the world.
Karma
Actions or deeds performed by an individual in a lifetime. In fact, karma is believed to accrue from
past births. Moksha simply cannot be attained till one has neither good nor bad deeds to one's
credit.
Concepts and Beliefs

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Religions in India
Hinduism
Mantra
A sacred syllable or ritual incantation which is believed to have the power to convert word into
reality, like the root mantra Om which is supposed to be the sound of the vibration of the world
when it was being created.
Maya
Generally the illusion that this tangible world is the real world and success herein the ultimate goal
of life. According to Hinduism the real world is the world of the soul, not of the body and the
senses.
Moksha
Final release or liberation of a soul from the endless cycle of death and rebirth.
Samadhi
The internal ecstasy attained through meditation by a yogi (someone who has renounced the
world to lead a life of meditation). This is usually the final stage of ecstasy when the soul transcends
the human body to merge with the cosmos.
Samsara
The endless cycle of death and rebirth which believes that a soul is reincarnated till it has evolved
enough to attain moksha.
Samskaras
A Hindu is expected to perform certain rituals throughout this life from the moment of conception
of life to death. Numbering to about 40, these samskaras include a child's naming ceremony,
marriage and the funeral rites performed by the off-spring of the dead.

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Religions in India
Hinduism
Tantra
Religious texts that describe an esoteric path to enlightenment. However, tantra is
usually understood as a term with negative connotations. In this context it refers to
sorcerous practices that centre around the cult of the goddess and may involve
sexual orgies.
Yantra
A symbolic diagram used as an aid to meditation usually associated to tantra. A
condensed symbol of the cosmos; abstract lines, shapes and colors go into the
making of a yantra.
Yoga
Yoga can broadly be described as the method of attaining the ultimate goal
(liberation of soul from the body) by mastering the body, the senses and the mind
through physical exercises and meditation. (see Yoga under Healing Systems of India)
Sadhus, the Wandering Hermits
A sight peculiar to India and Hinduism is that of saffron-clad hermits with matted locks
who often travel from one holy place to another with scarcely a possession in the
world.

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Religions in India
Hinduism
Brahma
Brahma is the first of the powerful Hindu Trinity of Creator-Preserver-Destroyer. The
creator of life, he said to be Prajapati, the creator of the Vedas . He is often depicted
as a wise old bearded man standing on a lotus, which has led to his being referred to
as one 'born of a lotus'.
Saraswati
The goddess of learning and wisdom, Saraswati is the consort of Brahma. She is
believed to have invented the Sanskrit language and is the patroness of the arts and
sciences. Floating on a lotus, she is often shown playing the veena (a stringed musical
instrument).
Vishnu or Narayana
One of the three most powerful Hindu gods, Vishnu is the second of the Trinity of
Creator-Preserver-Destroyer. When Vishnu is asleep on the coils of Ananta (the many-
headed snake), the universe is in a state of dissolution. When he wakes up, the
universe evolves. The cycle goes on thus., and it goes on forever. Periodically, Vishnu
descends to earth to protect truth and virtue and to destroy evil. His earlier avatars
(incarnations) were in animal forms. In his seventh, eighth and ninth incarnations,
Vishnu appeared as Rama, Krishna and Buddha respectively.
Gods & Goddesses

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Religions in India
Hinduism
Lakshmi
Vishnu's consort, Lakshmi, is the Goddess of wealth, plenty and prosperity. Bedecked
with jewellery, she is shown sitting on a lotus. When Vishnu appeared on earth in the
form of Rama, she faithfully followed as his wife Sita. In Vishnu's avatar as Krishna, she
became both Radha and Rukmini.
Shiva
Shiva, the most-feared of the Hindu gods, has the aspect of an ascetic and is the
destroyer in the great Trinity. He has many roles to play. He is the Great Yogi
meditating on Mount Kailasa (in the Himalyas). He is Nataraja (Lord of Dance),
creating and destroying. He is Bhooteshwar, the lord of wandering spirits and lost souls.
He is Pashupatinath, the lord and protector of all animal life. In another aspect he is
the seed of life and his phallic symbol is worshipped in many temples. The cobra, the
bull Nandi, the trishul (trident) and the linga (phallus) are all symbols of Shiva.
Shakti
Shiva's spouse is Shakti (Energy) in the forms of Uma, Parvati and Durga. While Shiva
stays aloof meditating on Mount Kailash, his power to act is embodied the form of the
goddess or Devi. In her beneficent form she is Parvati, while in her terrifying form she
appears as Kali. The cult of Shakti worship is especially strong in North India and in the
eastern state of West Bengal.
Gods & Goddesses

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Religions in India
Hinduism
Ganesha
The elephant-headed god, son of Shiva and Parvati, is known for his wisdom and
brings prosperity. His birthday is considered the most auspicious day of the year and
Hindus always invoke his name before beginning any new enterprise.
Rama
Vishnu in his avatar as Rama is referred to as Purshottam, the perfect man whose each
act is governed by dharma. The purpose of the incarnation was to rid mankind of the
menace of the powerful, ten-headed demonking Ravana.
Krishna
The most human of the Hindu gods, as a child he delighted in stealing butter. As a
youth wearing a crown of peacock feathers and dressed in yellow silk, he held cows
spellbound as the flute-playing cowherd. As the beloved of all the gopis (milkmaids),
he held them entranced with the magic of his flute and performed the rasleela
(dance) with them. In his mature years, Krishna appears as an astute statesman and
later the wise philosopher whose teachings are embodied in the Bhagwad Gita.
Gods & Goddesses

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Religions in India
Buddhism
• Around 530 BC a young prince named Siddhartha Gautama challenged
the ideas of the Brahmin priests and created a new world religion.
• Born in 563 BC into the warrior caste, he lived in luxury in his family‟s
palaces and never experienced pain, suffering, or death
• He married a beautiful woman and they had a son.
• One day while riding in his chariot outside the palace walls, Gautama
saw a sick man, an old man, and a dead man.
• He realized that life was an endless cycle of pain and that the only way to
escape that cycle was to seek wisdom.
• He left his family when he was about 29 and became a homeless
wanderer with five other men who were also seeking wisdom.
• Gautama tried to find wisdom through physical suffering and harsh
discipline but instead he gained only pain.
• At last, after days of meditating deeply in the shade of a tree, Gautama
felt that the truth had come to him.
• At this point, he became known as “The Enlightened One,” or Buddha.

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Religions in India
Buddhism
Four Noble Truths

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